Unit II
Theory
1. Abduction (with Scholars)
Abduction is a form of reasoning that begins with an observation and then suggests the most reasonable explanation for it. It does not claim certainty; instead, it offers a plausible hypothesis.
The concept of abduction was first clearly developed by Charles Sanders Peirce. According to Peirce, abduction is the starting point of inquiry because it helps generate new ideas and explanations. While deduction proves and induction generalizes, abduction creates hypotheses.
In qualitative research, abduction is widely used because social and literary phenomena are complex and cannot always be explained by fixed rules. Scholars like Norman Denzin and Yvonna Lincoln emphasize abductive reasoning in interpretive research, where meaning is explored rather than measured.
In literary studies, abduction helps critics interpret symbols, themes, or character behavior. For example, when a critic explains a recurring image in a novel, they are often using abductive reasoning.
In short, abduction is creative, exploratory, and theory-building, making it very important in humanities and qualitative research.
2. Deduction (with Scholars)
Deduction is a logical method of reasoning that moves from a general principle or theory to a specific conclusion. If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true.
Deductive reasoning has its roots in Aristotle’s logic. In modern research, it is closely associated with Karl Popper, who emphasized hypothesis testing. Popper argued that theories should be tested through deduction and falsification.
In research methodology, deduction usually begins with a theory, followed by hypotheses, data collection, and testing. This approach is dominant in quantitative and positivist research.
In literary studies, deduction is used when critics apply established theories—such as Marxism, Feminism, or Psychoanalysis—to analyze texts. The critic assumes the theory and examines how the text fits it.
Deduction is valued for its clarity, structure, and logical strength, but it does not generate new ideas. Therefore, it is often combined with induction or abduction.
3. Induction (with Scholars)
Induction is a method of reasoning that moves from specific observations to general conclusions. It is based on identifying patterns in data.
The philosophical roots of induction lie in Francis Bacon, who emphasized learning from experience and observation. In modern qualitative research, induction is strongly supported by scholars like Glaser and Strauss, especially in Grounded Theory.
Inductive research does not start with a theory. Instead, theories emerge from data. This makes induction very important in qualitative research, cultural studies, and literary analysis.
In literary studies, induction is used when scholars read multiple texts and then make general claims about an author, genre, or literary period.
Induction is flexible and open-ended, but its conclusions are probable, not certain. Still, it is essential for theory development and discovery.
4. Empiricism (with Scholars)
Empiricism is the belief that knowledge comes primarily from experience and observation. It emphasizes evidence gathered through the senses.
Major empiricist philosophers include John Locke, George Berkeley, and David Hume. Locke famously argued that the human mind is a tabula rasa (blank slate) shaped by experience.
In research, empiricism supports data collection through observation, experiments, surveys, and texts. In literary research, empiricism appears in historical and biographical approaches, archival studies, and textual scholarship.
Empiricism promotes objectivity and verification but is criticized by scholars like Wilhelm Dilthey, who argued that human experiences cannot be studied like natural objects.
Despite criticism, empiricism remains important for grounding research in evidence rather than speculation.
5. Idealism (with Scholars)
Idealism emphasizes the role of the mind, ideas, and consciousness in shaping reality.
Classical idealism is associated with Plato, while modern philosophical idealism is linked to Immanuel Kant and G.W.F. Hegel. Kant argued that reality is shaped by mental categories.
In research, idealism supports interpretive and qualitative methods. Scholars focus on meanings, values, and subjective experiences.
In literary studies, idealism supports the idea that literature expresses inner realities—emotions, imagination, and thought. Romantic criticism is deeply influenced by idealist philosophy.
Critics argue that idealism ignores material and social conditions, which later led to Marxist critiques.
6. Pragmatism (with Scholars)
Pragmatism judges ideas by their practical usefulness.
Key pragmatist philosophers include William James, John Dewey, and Charles Sanders Peirce. William James argued that truth is what “works” in practice.
In research methodology, pragmatism supports mixed-methods research. Scholars like John Creswell emphasize pragmatism as a flexible research philosophy.
In literary studies, pragmatism focuses on how texts function in society and affect readers.
Pragmatism avoids rigid theoretical positions and is valued for its problem-solving approach.
7. Realism (with Scholars)
Realism holds that reality exists independently of human perception.
Philosophical realism has roots in Aristotle and is later developed by thinkers like Roy Bhaskar, who proposed Critical Realism. Bhaskar argued that reality exists but is understood imperfectly.
In literature, realism is associated with writers like Balzac, Dickens, and George Eliot, who portrayed social reality.
Realism helps researchers focus on real social structures and causes, though critics argue it underplays interpretation.
8. Positivism (with Scholars)
Positivism believes that valid knowledge comes from scientific observation and measurement.
The term was popularized by Auguste Comte, who argued that society should be studied scientifically. Later, Émile Durkheim applied positivism to sociology.
In research, positivism emphasizes objectivity, hypothesis testing, and statistics. It strongly influences quantitative research.
In literary studies, positivism is limited, as literature involves meaning and interpretation rather than measurement.
9. Relativism (with Scholars)
Relativism argues that truth depends on context, culture, and perspective.
Scholars like Friedrich Nietzsche and later Michel Foucault challenged universal truths. Foucault emphasized that knowledge is shaped by power and discourse.
In literary theory, relativism supports multiple interpretations of texts.
While relativism encourages openness, critics argue it can lead to extreme subjectivity.
10. Constructivism (with Scholars)
Constructivism holds that knowledge is socially constructed.
Key scholars include Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, and in qualitative research, Denzin and Lincoln.
In literary studies, constructivism supports reader-response theory, especially Stanley Fish.
Meaning is created through interaction, not fixed in the text.
11. Essentialism (with Scholars)
Essentialism believes that things have a fixed, universal essence.
Plato is an early essentialist thinker. In literary and cultural theory, essentialism is often criticized by Simone de Beauvoir and Judith Butler, especially in gender studies.
Modern theory largely rejects essentialism for being rigid and exclusionary.
12. Hermeneutics (with Scholars)
Hermeneutics is the theory of interpretation.
Important scholars include Friedrich Schleiermacher, Wilhelm Dilthey, Martin Heidegger, and Hans-Georg Gadamer. Gadamer emphasized historical context and the fusion of horizons.
Hermeneutics is central to literary criticism, focusing on meaning, context, and interpretation.
Below are exam-ready short notes (≈150 words each)
1. Abduction
Abduction is a method of reasoning that starts with an observation and then suggests the most possible explanation. It was developed by Charles Sanders Peirce. Abduction does not give a final truth; instead, it helps researchers form a hypothesis. For example, if a researcher notices that students are losing interest in online classes, they may guess that lack of interaction is the reason. This explanation is not proven yet, but it is reasonable. In literary studies, abduction is used when critics interpret symbols or themes. For instance, if darkness appears repeatedly in a novel, a critic may explain it as a symbol of psychological fear. Abduction is very useful in qualitative research because it allows creativity and flexibility. It helps researchers move from confusion to possible understanding, especially when existing theories do not fully explain a situation.
2. Deduction
Deduction is a type of reasoning that moves from a general rule to a specific conclusion. This method was developed by Aristotle and later supported by Karl Popper in scientific research. In deduction, if the rule is true, the conclusion must be true. For example, if all Romantic poets focus on nature and Wordsworth is a Romantic poet, then Wordsworth focuses on nature. In research, deduction is used when a researcher starts with a theory and tests it using data. In literary studies, deduction appears when critics apply theories like Marxism or Feminism to texts. Deduction is strong because it is logical and systematic, but it does not create new ideas. It only tests existing knowledge. Therefore, it is often combined with induction or abduction.
3. Induction
Induction is a method of reasoning that moves from specific examples to a general conclusion. This method was supported by Francis Bacon and later used by Glaser and Strauss in grounded theory. In induction, researchers observe patterns and then develop theories. For example, after reading many Victorian novels, a researcher may conclude that Victorian literature deals with social problems. In literary studies, induction is used when critics study many poems of a poet and then describe common themes. Induction is very useful in qualitative research because it allows theories to emerge from data. However, inductive conclusions are not certain; they are only probable. Still, induction is important because it helps in discovering new ideas and developing theories.
4. Empiricism
Empiricism is the belief that knowledge comes from experience and observation. Important empiricist philosophers include John Locke and David Hume. According to empiricism, ideas are formed through what we see, hear, and experience. In research, empiricism supports the use of evidence, data, and observation. In literary studies, empiricism is used in historical and biographical approaches where scholars study texts, letters, and historical background. For example, studying Shakespeare’s plays through Elizabethan history is an empirical approach. Empiricism is valued because it avoids guesswork and focuses on facts. However, critics argue that not all knowledge comes from experience, especially emotions and meanings. Still, empiricism remains important for making research reliable and evidence-based.
5. Idealism
Idealism is a philosophical view that emphasizes the role of ideas and the human mind in shaping reality. Philosophers like Plato, Kant, and Hegel supported idealism. According to idealism, reality is understood through thoughts and consciousness. In research, idealism supports qualitative methods that focus on human experience and meaning. In literary studies, idealism sees literature as an expression of imagination, emotions, and inner reality. For example, Romantic poetry is often studied using idealist ideas because it focuses on feelings and imagination. Idealism helps researchers understand meaning and interpretation, but it is criticized for ignoring material and social conditions. Still, it is important in humanities and literary criticism.
6. Pragmatism
Pragmatism is a philosophy that judges ideas by their practical usefulness. Important pragmatist thinkers include William James and John Dewey. According to pragmatism, an idea is true if it works in practice. In research, pragmatism allows researchers to use any method that helps answer the research question. For example, a researcher may use interviews and surveys together if both are useful. In literary studies, pragmatism focuses on how texts affect readers and society. Pragmatism is popular in mixed-methods research because it is flexible. It avoids strict theories and focuses on solving real problems. This makes pragmatism very useful in modern research.
7. Realism
Realism is the belief that reality exists independently of human thoughts and ideas. Philosophers like Aristotle and later Roy Bhaskar supported realism. In research, realism focuses on real social structures such as class, power, and institutions. In literature, realism is a movement that presents life as it is. Writers like Charles Dickens showed real social problems in their works. In literary criticism, realism helps researchers study social reality reflected in texts. Realism is strong because it connects literature with real life, but critics say it ignores the role of interpretation. Still, realism is important for understanding society through literature.
8. Positivism
Positivism is a research philosophy that believes only scientific and observable knowledge is valid. Auguste Comte is the main thinker associated with positivism. Positivism supports objective methods like experiments, statistics, and surveys. In research, it focuses on hypothesis testing and measurable facts. Positivism is strong in natural sciences and quantitative social research. In literary studies, positivism is limited because literature deals with meaning and emotion. For example, counting word frequency in a novel is a positivist method, but it cannot explain deeper meaning. Positivism is criticized for ignoring human subjectivity, yet it is important for bringing scientific discipline into research.
9. Relativism
Relativism is the belief that truth depends on culture, history, and perspective. Thinkers like Nietzsche and Michel Foucault supported this idea. According to relativism, there is no single universal truth. In literary studies, relativism allows multiple interpretations of a text. For example, a feminist reading and a Marxist reading of the same novel can both be valid. Relativism helps researchers respect different viewpoints and cultural contexts. However, it is criticized for leading to extreme subjectivity, where all interpretations seem equally true. Still, relativism is important for understanding diversity in meaning and interpretation.
10. Constructivism
Constructivism believes that knowledge is constructed by people through social interaction and experience. Important scholars include Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. In research, constructivism focuses on how people create meaning. Interviews and narratives are common methods. In literary studies, constructivism supports reader-response theory, where meaning is created by readers. For example, different readers may understand the same poem differently. Constructivism is useful because it explains how meaning changes with context. However, critics argue that it ignores objective reality. Still, constructivism is widely used in qualitative research.
11. Essentialism
Essentialism is the belief that things have a fixed and natural essence. This idea comes from Plato’s philosophy. In literature and culture, essentialism appears when people believe that certain groups have fixed qualities. For example, saying all women are emotional is an essentialist view. Essentialism provides clarity but is criticized by modern scholars like Simone de Beauvoir and Judith Butler for creating stereotypes. In literary studies, essentialism is often questioned because identity is seen as flexible and changing. Today, most researchers reject essentialism and support more inclusive and dynamic views of identity.
12. Hermeneutics
Hermeneutics is the theory of interpretation, especially of texts. Important scholars include Schleiermacher, Dilthey, Heidegger, and Hans-Georg Gadamer. Hermeneutics focuses on understanding meaning within historical and cultural contexts. In literary studies, hermeneutics helps readers interpret poems, novels, and plays. For example, understanding Shakespeare requires knowledge of Elizabethan culture. Hermeneutics also explains the hermeneutic circle, where the meaning of the whole text depends on its parts and vice versa. This approach shows that meaning is not fixed and changes with interpretation. Hermeneutics is central to literary criticism and qualitative research.
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1. abduction
-The term **abduction** is a critical yet less familiar mode of logical reasoning, systematically articulated by Charles Peirce in the late 19th century. It functions alongside deduction and induction as a way to make inferences about the world, particularly useful in qualitative research. The abductive process can be summarized as follows: when an event X surprises us, but if a certain explanation Y were true, X would be expected, then it is plausible that Y is the explanation for X. This reasoning is distinct from deduction, which offers certainty if premises are true, and induction, which offers probabilistic conclusions. Instead, abduction yields plausibility, meaning abductive inferences are inherently weaker but open up possibilities for new meanings or explanations that might otherwise be overlooked.
Abduction is sometimes described as "reasoning toward meaning" or "reasoning to the best explanation." It expands researchers’ understanding by allowing them to consider alternative explanations beyond traditional or established views, embodying what Russell Hanson called the "logic of discovery." This form of reasoning has been influential in fields such as artificial intelligence and semiotics, where it aids in interpreting signs and generating hypotheses.
Moreover, abductive reasoning has been metaphorically linked to detective work, with Sherlock Holmes famously exemplifying abductive inference—drawing conclusions from surprising facts like the watchdog’s silence to infer the familiarity of the kidnapper. Contemporary qualitative researchers like Gary Shank have identified multiple modes of abductive inferences—hunches, omens, clues, metaphors, patterns, and explanations—that collectively underpin qualitative inquiry as a systematic empirical study of meaning.
In summary, **abduction is a mode of logical inference that offers plausible explanations for surprising phenomena, emphasizing discovery and meaning-making. It is especially valuable in qualitative research to generate new understandings and hypotheses, complementing deduction’s certainty and induction’s probability, while expanding the interpretive possibilities of inquiry.**
2. deduction
**Deduction** is one of the three primary modes of logical reasoning, alongside abduction and induction. It is the oldest and most classical form of inference, systematically formalized in syllogistic form by Aristotle. Deductive reasoning involves deriving specific conclusions from general premises that are assumed to be true. For example, from the general rule "All men are mortal" and the case "Socrates is a man," one deduces the conclusion "Socrates is mortal." Deductive inferences are characterized by their certainty: if the premises are true, then the conclusion is guaranteed true. This contrasts with induction, which is probabilistic, and abduction, which is plausible reasoning toward meaning.
Deduction plays a central role in the hypothetico-deductive method in science, where hypotheses are deduced from general premises and then tested empirically. In qualitative research, the role of deduction is more complex and sometimes contested, as qualitative inquiry often emphasizes inductive and interpretive approaches. Nevertheless, deduction remains essential in formulating logical arguments and testing specific hypotheses derived from theory.
In summary, deduction is a logical process of reasoning from general truths to specific conclusions, distinguished by its guarantee of truth preservation given true premises, and is foundational to scientific and philosophical inquiry.
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3.induction
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a simple, easy-to-read table suitable for PhD-level qualitative research notes. Each row will include Origin/Who, Meaning, Use, Example in simplified language.
Here’s the table:
| Concept | Origin / Who Originated It | Meaning (in simple words) | Use in Research | Example |
|---|
| Abduction | Charles Sanders Peirce (19th century) | Guessing the most likely explanation for something | To create hypotheses from surprising observations | Students perform better with mobile libraries → maybe self-learning improves scores |
| Deduction | Aristotle (4th century BCE) | Going from a general idea to a specific conclusion | To test theories or hypotheses | Theory: reading improves comprehension → Students who read daily score higher |
| Induction | Francis Bacon (16th–17th century) | Going from specific observations to a general conclusion | To create theories from observed data | Teachers report collaboration helps inclusion → Collaboration is key to inclusive classrooms |
| Empiricism | John Locke, David Hume (17th–18th c.) | Knowledge comes from experience and observation | Observations, experiments, and fieldwork | Recording classroom interactions to study learning behavior |
| Idealism | Plato, Kant, Hegel | Reality is shaped by ideas and thoughts | To focus on meanings and subjective experiences | Studying student identity through their beliefs and experiences |
| Pragmatism | Charles Peirce, William James, Dewey | Value ideas based on their usefulness and results | Use any method that gives practical answers | Mixing surveys and interviews to study student motivation |
| Realism | Aristotle, Roy Bhaskar | Reality exists independently but can be studied | To study underlying structures in society | Student achievement is affected by teaching quality, not just opinions |
| Positivism | Auguste Comte (19th century) | Only measurable, observable facts are valid knowledge | Quantitative research, hypothesis testing | Survey on hours studied vs. test scores |
| Relativism | Ancient sophists; 20th-century social sciences | Truth depends on context or culture | Understand different perspectives in qualitative research | “Success” means different things in urban and rural schools |
| Constructivism | Jean Piaget, Berger & Luckmann | People build knowledge through experience | To explore how participants make meaning | Study how students form self-identity through school experiences |
| Essentialism | Plato, Aristotle, educational theory | Some traits or truths are universal and essential | To focus on core knowledge or skills | Literacy and numeracy are essential for all students |
| Hermeneutics | Schleiermacher, Gadamer | Interpreting texts or meanings in context | To analyze interviews, diaries, and narratives | Studying student diary entries to understand deeper experiences |
:
1. Abduction
Origin / Who: Charles Sanders Peirce (19th century)
Meaning: Abduction is reasoning that starts with surprising facts and tries to find the most likely explanation. Unlike deduction, which guarantees a conclusion, or induction, which generalizes, abduction proposes a plausible hypothesis to explain what we observe. It is sometimes called “inference to the best explanation.”
Use in Research: Abduction is useful in exploratory research when you notice unexpected patterns and want to suggest explanations. It helps researchers develop new ideas or hypotheses that can later be tested. It is widely used in qualitative studies, especially when analyzing narratives, case studies, or unusual events.
Example: A teacher notices that students using mobile learning apps perform better than expected. Through abduction, the researcher may hypothesize that self-directed learning or personalized content contributes to better performance. This hypothesis can then guide further observation or testing.
2. Deduction
Origin / Who: Aristotle (4th century BCE)
Meaning: Deduction is reasoning from a general rule or theory to predict a specific outcome. If the general rule is true, the conclusion must also be true. It is often called “top-down” reasoning.
Use in Research: Deductive reasoning is used to test theories and hypotheses. Researchers start with a theoretical framework and check whether observations support or contradict it. This method is common in both qualitative and quantitative research, especially for hypothesis testing.
Example: A theory says that daily reading improves comprehension skills. Using deduction, a researcher predicts that students who read every day will score higher on comprehension tests. They then measure this specific group’s performance to confirm or refute the prediction.
3. Induction
Origin / Who: Francis Bacon (16th–17th century)
Meaning: Induction is reasoning from specific observations to broader generalizations. Unlike deduction, the conclusion is probable, not certain. It is a “bottom-up” approach where patterns observed in data lead to theory development.
Use in Research: Induction is common in qualitative research, where the researcher collects detailed observations and gradually identifies patterns or themes to build theories.
Example: A researcher observes classrooms for several months and notices that students who collaborate in groups show higher engagement. From multiple observations, they generalize that collaboration improves classroom participation and learning outcomes.
4. Empiricism
Origin / Who: John Locke, David Hume (17th–18th century)
Meaning: Empiricism states that knowledge comes from experience, observation, and sensory evidence, rather than pure reasoning or intuition. Reality is understood through direct experience.
Use in Research: Empirical research collects data through observation, experiments, or measurement. It is foundational in both qualitative and quantitative studies. It allows researchers to base conclusions on real-world evidence rather than assumptions.
Example: A researcher observes classroom interactions for six weeks, noting how teacher feedback affects student participation. The study relies on recorded observations, making the conclusions empirically grounded.
5. Idealism
Origin / Who: Plato, Kant, Hegel
Meaning: Idealism emphasizes that reality is shaped by ideas, consciousness, or perceptions rather than material objects. Knowledge is a reflection of human thought and meaning-making.
Use in Research: Idealist approaches are used to study subjective experiences, interpretations, and meanings. Researchers focus on participants’ perspectives rather than external “objective” facts.
Example: Studying students’ sense of identity in school involves analyzing how their beliefs, values, and perceptions shape their behavior and aspirations. The researcher explores their inner ideas rather than just observable actions.
6. Pragmatism
Origin / Who: Charles Peirce, William James, John Dewey
Meaning: Pragmatism values ideas and methods based on their practical outcomes. Knowledge is judged by usefulness, and there is no strict divide between qualitative or quantitative methods.
Use in Research: Pragmatism supports mixed-methods research, focusing on what works to answer the research question. It prioritizes problem-solving and actionable insights.
Example: A researcher studying student motivation combines surveys (quantitative) and interviews (qualitative) to understand why some students engage more. The focus is on collecting information that effectively informs strategies to improve motivation.
7. Realism
Origin / Who: Aristotle; Roy Bhaskar (modern critical realism)
Meaning: Realism posits that an external reality exists independently of perception, but humans can study it to uncover patterns, structures, or causal mechanisms.
Use in Research: Realism is used to study social, educational, or natural structures. It allows researchers to understand how phenomena operate even if individuals perceive them differently.
Example: A study may examine how teacher quality affects student achievement. While students have different opinions, the research uncovers a structural cause—the teaching methods—which influences learning outcomes consistently.
8. Positivism
Origin / Who: Auguste Comte (19th century)
Meaning: Positivism asserts that only measurable, observable, and factual knowledge is valid. It focuses on objective data, often using quantitative methods.
Use in Research: Positivist research involves hypothesis testing, experiments, and statistical analysis. It avoids subjective interpretation, emphasizing reproducible results.
Example: A survey examines the correlation between study hours and exam scores. Only measurable data (hours studied, test marks) are used to draw conclusions.
9. Relativism
Origin / Who: Ancient sophists; modern social sciences
Meaning: Relativism states that truth or knowledge depends on context, culture, or perspective. There is no single universal truth.
Use in Research: Relativist approaches are applied in qualitative studies to explore different perspectives, cultures, or subjective meanings.
Example: In a study of school success, urban and rural students define “success” differently. Understanding these context-dependent definitions is essential for interpreting the data.
10. Constructivism
Origin / Who: Jean Piaget; Berger & Luckmann
Meaning: Constructivism argues that people actively construct knowledge through experiences and interactions. Reality is not merely discovered but made meaningful.
Use in Research: Constructivist approaches explore how participants make sense of events, texts, or situations. Often applied in education, psychology, and social sciences.
Example: A study explores how students develop self-identity in schools through interactions with peers and teachers, showing how knowledge and identity are socially constructed.
11. Essentialism
Origin / Who: Plato, Aristotle; modern educational theory
Meaning: Essentialism asserts that certain traits, knowledge, or skills are universal and necessary. These essentials form the foundation of learning or understanding.
Use in Research: Essentialist approaches guide studies that focus on core skills, knowledge, or truths considered vital for development or education.
Example: Literacy and numeracy are seen as essential for all students. Research may focus on how teaching these skills influences later academic success.
12. Hermeneutics
Origin / Who: Friedrich Schleiermacher, Hans-Georg Gadamer
Meaning: Hermeneutics is the art and science of interpretation, especially of texts, language, or symbolic expressions. It emphasizes understanding meaning in context.
Use in Research: Hermeneutics is widely used in qualitative research for analyzing interviews, diaries, literature, or historical documents to uncover deeper meanings.
Example: A researcher studies students’ diaries to understand their experiences during exams. Hermeneutic analysis interprets the text to uncover emotions, coping strategies, and attitudes beyond the literal words.
